____isthe center of our planetary system was considered as heresy by the church in the Middle Ages. A: It is the sun and not the earth B: That the sun and not the earth C: Being the sun and not the earth D: The sun and not the earth

中国大学MOOC: 6. The CrusadesThe crusades were a series of religious wars in western Asia and Europe initiated, supported and sometimes directed by the Catholic Church between the 11th and the 17th century. The crusades differed from other religious conflicts in that participants considered them a penitential exercise that brought absolution. Historians contest the definition of the term with some restricting it to armed pilgrimages to Jerusalem, others including all Catholic military campaigns with a promise of spiritual benefits, all Catholic holy wars or those with characteristic religious fervor. The most well-known are those fought against the Muslims of the eastern Mediterranean for the Holy Land between 1096 and 1271. Crusades were also fought from the 12th century against the Iberian Moors, the Ottoman Empire and for a variety of other reasons. These included fighting pagans, the suppression of heresy and the resolution of conflict between Catholic groups. In 1095 Pope Urban II proclaimed the First Crusade at the Council of Clermont. He encouraged military support for the Byzantine Emperor Alexios I against the Seljuk Turks and an armed pilgrimage to Jerusalem. A precedent was set by the enthusiastic western European response across all social strata. Historians debate the combination of motivations of the volunteers who took a public vow—the prospect of mass ascension into Heaven at Jerusalem, satisfying feudal obligations, opportunities for renown, economic and political advantage are all considered. Four Crusader states were established in the Near East: the County of Edessa, the Principality of Antioch, the Kingdom of Jerusalem and the County of Tripoli. This was a presence that remained in some form until Acre, the last mainland outpost, fell in 1291, after which there were no further crusades to recover the Holy Land. The Reconquista, the struggle between the Christians and Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula, was proclaimed a crusade in 1123 and ended with the fall of Emirate of Granada in 1492. The Northern Crusades that brought the pagan tribes of north-eastern Europe under Christian control were considered crusades from 1147. The papacy began the practice of proclaiming political crusades against disobedient Christian rulers with Pope Innocent III in 1199. From 1208 in Languedoc, crusading was used against heretics continuing in Savoy and Bohemia in the 15th century and against Protestants in the 16th century. Crusading was used in response to the rise of the Ottoman Empire in the mid-14th century, only ending with the War of the Holy League in 1699. 12. Which one was not the Crusader state founded in the Near East?

Sign has become a scientific hot button. Only in the past 20 years have specialists in language study realized that signed languages are unique—a speech of the hand. They offer a new way to probe how the brain generates and understands language, and throw new light on an old scientific controversy: whether language,complete with grammar, is something that we are born With, or whether it is a learned behavior. The current interest in sign language has roots in the pioneering work of one rebel teacher at Gallaudet University in Washington, D. C., the world’s only liberal arts university for deaf people.When Bill Stokoe went to Gallaudet to teach English, the school enrolled him in a course in signing. But Stokoe noticed something odd: among themselves, students signed differently from his classroom teacher.Stokoe had been taught a sort of gestural code, each movement of the hands representing a word in English.At the time, American Sign Language (ASL) was thought to be no more than a form of pidgin English (混杂英语). But Stokoe believed the “hand talk”his students used looked richer. He wondered: Might deaf people actually: have a genuine language? And could that language be unlike any other on Earth? It was 1955, wheneven deaf people dismissed their signing as“substandard”. Stokoe’s idea was academic heresy (异端邪说).It is 37 years later. Stokoe—now devoting his time to writing and editing books and journals and to producing video materials on ASL and the deaf culture—is having lunch at a cafe near the Gallaudet campus and explaining how he started a revolution. For decades educators fought his idea that signed languages are natural languages like English, French and Japanese. They assumed language must be based on speech, the modulation (调节) of sound. But sign language is based on the movement of hands, the modulation of space. “What I said,” Stokoe explains, “is that language is not mouth stuff—it’s brain stuff.”练习题：Choose correct answers to the question:1. The study of sign language is thought to be ________.A. a new way to look at the learning of languageB. a challenge to traditional, views on the nature of languageC. an approach: to simplifying the grammatical structure of a languageD. an attempt to clarify misunderstanding about the origin of language2. The present growing interest in sign language was stimulated by _______.A. a famous scholar in the study of the human brainB. a leading specialist in the study of liberal artsC. an English teacher in a university for the deafD. some senior experts in American Sign Language3. According to Stokoe, sign language is ________.A. a Substandard languageB. a genuine languageC. an artificial languageD. an international language4. Most educators objected to Stokoe’s idea because they thought ________.A. sign language was not extensively used even by deaf peopleB. sign language was too artificial to be widely acceptedC. a language should be easy to use and understandD. a language could only exist in the form of speech sounds5. Stokoe’s argument is based on his belief that ________.A. sign language is as efficient as any other languageB. sign language is derived from natural languageC. language is a system of meaningful codesD. language is a product of the brain

Sign has become a scientific hot button. Only in the past 20 years have specialists in language study realized that signed languages are unique—a speech of the hand. They offer a new way to probe how the brain generates and understands language, and throw new light on an old scientific controversy: whether language,complete with grammar, is something that we are born With, or whether it is a learned behavior. The current interest in sign language has roots in the pioneering work of one rebel teacher at Gallaudet University in Washington, D. C., the world’s only liberal arts university for deaf people. When Bill Stokoe went to Gallaudet to teach English, the school enrolled him in a course in signing. But Stokoe noticed something odd: among themselves, students signed differently from his classroom teacher. Stokoe had been taught a sort of gestural code, each movement of the hands representing a word in English.At the time, American Sign Language (ASL) was thought to be no more than a form of pidgin English (混杂英语). But Stokoe believed the “hand talk”his students used looked richer. He wondered: Might deaf people actually: have a genuine language? And could that language be unlike any other on Earth? It was 1955, wheneven deaf people dismissed their signing as“substandard”. Stokoe’s idea was academic heresy (异端邪说). It is 37 years later. Stokoe—now devoting his time to writing and editing books and journals and to producing video materials on ASL and the deaf culture—is having lunch at a cafe near the Gallaudet campus and explaining how he started a revolution. For decades educators fought his idea that signed languages are natural languages like English, French and Japanese. They assumed language must be based on speech, the modulation (调节) of sound. But sign language is based on the movement of hands, the modulation of space. “What I said,” Stokoe explains, “is that language is not mouth stuff—it’s brain stuff.” 练习题： Choose correct answers to the question: 1. The study of sign language is thought to be ________. A. a new way to look at the learning of language B. a challenge to traditional, views on the nature of language C. an approach: to simplifying the grammatical structure of a language D. an attempt to clarify misunderstanding about the origin of language 2. The present growing interest in sign language was stimulated by _______. A. a famous scholar in the study of the human brain B. a leading specialist in the study of liberal arts C. an English teacher in a university for the deaf D. some senior experts in American Sign Language 3. According to Stokoe, sign language is ________. A. a Substandard language B. a genuine language C. an artificial language D. an international language 4. Most educators objected to Stokoe’s idea because they thought ________. A. sign language was not extensively used even by deaf people B. sign language was too artificial to be widely accepted C. a language should be easy to use and understand D. a language could only exist in the form of speech sounds 5. Stokoe’s argument is based on his belief that ________. A. sign language is as efficient as any other language B. sign language is derived from natural language C. language is a system of meaningful codes D. language is a product of the brain